In 1774, Johann Adam Birkenstock registered as a “vassal (a serf) and shoemaker” in a small village in Hesse, Germany. The family trade, Birkenstock Orthopädie GmbH & Co. KG was established shortly after.

By 1902, the popularity of custom-made shoes begun to wane as mass produced footwear became more available. The first known arch support was a shoe modification attributed to Everett H. Dunbar of Bridgewater, Massachusetts in 1865, when he used leather “lifts” between the insole and the outsole of his shoe, to give extra support to the arch. It remains unclear whether this was the inspiration but recognising the market potential to make over the counter footwear more comfortable, Konrad Birkenstock developed flexible, contoured arch supports, which could be inserted into mass-produced shoes. Konrad Birkenstock developed the original prototype material from a baked mix of cork and latex to produce a light, resilient material capable of supporting body weight. Using the cast of a sand footprint he built the Fussbett. Birkenstock’s contoured supports, bent to accommodate the foot, and was differed from the other supports on the market, which were made of unyielding metal. In the late-19th century during the German spa culture the affluent from around the world flocked to resorts like Baden-Baden for water cures, and Konrad Birkenstock sold his comfortable shoes with contoured insoles.

With the rise of mass-produced shoes, the Birkenstock family business moved away from the crafting of custom-designed shoes to concentrate on the production of shoe inserts. The company built molding presses to manufacture the flexible orthopedic inserts and continued to develop through
research better ways to us rubber as a material for foot supports. The success of the company led to a large national contract during World War I and admiration in medical circles. Konrad Birkenstock was generally regarded as an orthopedic authority and published several books.

His son, Carl Birkenstock, joined the company and in 1915, began to travel throughout Germany, introducing the family’s products to new buyers. He also followed in his footsteps and wrote several books and pamphlets about foot health. In 1925, the “blue footbed” was among the products manufactured at a newly-opened facility in Friedberg, Germany. Konrad traveled extensively throughout Germany, Austria and Switzerland lecturing leading masters and guilds on the merits of his footbed, and licensed other cobblers to produce theirs made with his technique. Birkenstock’s “Blue Footbed” consisted of four layers: a shock absorbent rubber sole, two layers of jute fibres, and a firm corked footbed, covered with soft suede. Demand was so great a large factory with extensive grounds was built and expanded in Friedberg in Hesse. The output included day and night shift work.

Germany was economically devastated after a draining defeat in World War I. The Versailles Treaty forced Germany to pay incredibly sizeable reparations to France and Great Britain. Pos-War Germany faced economic chaos with mass unemployment and extremely high inflation. The economic situation briefly improved between 1924-1929. However, the Weimar democracy could not withstand the disastrous Great Depression of 1929. During these years remarkably the Birkenstock business thrived with sales of orthopaedic inserts exported to Austria, Switzerland, France, Italy, Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Holland, Luxembourg, Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. Many changes and additions were made adding different widths to better fit the foot and to accommodate shoes. In 1937, Birkenstock altered the footbed, adding a patented “ring,” to enable the insert to be easily adjusted to fit each foot. The popularity of accommodative foot orthoses attracted fierce competition from other companies.

There are several reasons why the footbed sold well even at a time when disposable income was vert short. The insoles were comfortable and hard wearing and cheaper to buy than a pair of new shoes. Worn shoes and hand-me-downs were customed for better fit and comfort. There is also a common assumption the arch of the foot is vital and a flat foot would have serious and pathological consequences. In truth, feet are kinetic by nature and arch height changes during both open and closed chain movement. Therefore, for the vast majority, fear of flat feet would seem unfounded. However, as eugenics became a philosophical pillar of Nazi Germany in the thirties and mass exercise programs were openly encouraged, the middle classes flocked to them in their droves and of course needed the apparel, including comfortable arch supports. This again a buoyant market for leisure shoes and as walking became a national past time; walking shoes took on the air of respectability and became the sensible shoes with their nemeses, the heeled pump.

The concept of an arched foot has its origins in early Christian times. The belief, people were made in the image of God, gave substance to the existence of an idealised human form. Research has shown human beings prefer curved shapes to straight lines and the statues and paintings of antiquity give excellent examples of this. In less enlightened times, flat footedness was viewed with considerable suspicion when disease was also described as demonic possession which could only be relieved by exorcism. The presence of the devil was always accompanied with external signs to help good Christian people recognise evil. The absence of a longitudinal arch of the foot became an acknowledged mark of the devil. The theorem some races were inherently weaker than others prevailed at this time and was accepted by medics and ethnologists alike. Antisemitism in Europe was all too evident and a popular belief was Jewish people had inherently different anatomical structures from Christians. From the eighteenth century, ‘weak feet’ were identified as the common among Jewish people, and flat feet became a social stigma. A major attraction of arched footbeds was they could turn a flat foot into an arched foot, under the guise of the shoe. More than likely this accounts for the continued sales of arch supports throughout this period of history.

Throughout the 30s, Birkenstock expanded their education and promotion efforts in most European countries, sometimes deliberately targeting the general public. The Carl Birkenstock System promoted the company by educating leading physicians and Carl Birkenstock trained more than 5,000 specialists during his one-week foot service courses in 1932. The first edition “ Mit dem Arzt gegen Fußkrankheiten und Irrlehren” (“With the doctor against foot diseases and heresies”) was published in 1935 and sold over 15,000 copies.

With the coming of peace in 1945, the company transferred its operations from the Frankfort area in Hesse, to the town of Bad Honnef on the Rhine. The company introduced the Madrid sandal, a contoured cork foot bed with a buckled strap that crossed in a band at the toes. According to the manufacturer these were designed to tone the calf muscles with each step, as promoted as ‘exercise sandals,’ rather than a fashion item. The Birkenstock sandal was popular among returning soldiers mainly because of the orthopaedic support. Innovation and education continued apace; in 1946 the company introduced a toe-free insert and in 1948, “Fussorthopädie “System Carl Birkenstock” sold well and included his guide to “Naturgewollten Gehen” (Naturally wanted walking).

Germans had long extolled the virtues of walking and the desirability of a strong foot as the foundation of a healthy body influenced the Darwinistic theories of the nineteenth-century. When war time shortages and rationing meant leather was no longer available governments encouraged shoemakers to turn to wood or other alternatives as a practical solution. This meant companies had to become more inventive and Birkenstock were not the only company making exercise footwear. In Germany, Berkemann made lightweight sandals with soles of poplar wood; and in the 40s, Worishofer started making exercise sandals with a contoured foot bed and cork sole. After the Second World War these companies, although market rivals, became part of the economic renaissance of post-war Germany.

Berkemann was established in 1885 in Hamburg in 1880, during the Wilhelmine Era. In 1903, the company started to produce an orthopaedic insole with an arch bridge (support), The business grew rapidly and like, Birkenstock enjoyed the vogue for otrthopaedic footwear which accompanied the popularity of physical culture and rehabilitation following the Wars. The Original Sandal sold well enough to allow the company to expand and later the Toeffler, with its thick sole made of light-weight poplar wood became a classic.

Worishofer sandals were originally designed in the 1940s and named after the Bavarian spa town from which they originate. The sandals had perforated leather uppers and a cork wedge.

In North America, a German – American, William Matthias Scholl (1882 – 1968) patented an adjustable metal arch support called the Scholl’s Arch Fitter, ” (1909). He formed Dr. Scholl’s, to sell his patented foot care products and in 1910, he and his brother Frank established Scholl Manufacturing Company, Ltd. in London. It is unclear whether Scholl was influenced by Birkenstock although he did employ German shoe-makers who were as likely to be aware of Birkenstocks insoles. Neither is it clear whether he was hoping to improve upon the heavy and bulky, Whitman Brace, first described by Boston orthopaedist, Royal Whitman in 1905. By the 1940’s, Dr Scholl insoles become one of the company’s bestsellers. Scholl, like the Birkenstocks did realise the value of education and set in motion major programs to educate the public and trade on the benefits of his products and foot heath. William Howard Scholl (1920 -2002), the nephew of the founder re-introduced European exercise sandal ‘Dr Scholl Sandals’ in the UK in 1956, then later the US as fashion accessory. The simple slide with patented contour beechwood insoles, and adjustable leather strap sold well throughout the Flower Power Era.

In the late 1940s, there were 1,000 different brands of “doctor” shoes on the market and the competition was fierce. The advertising campaigns for corrective shoes became so outrageous the Federal Trade Commission was forced to issue cease-and-desist orders. In the wake of this discouragement, the corrective shoe business faded away.

By the mid-fifties Birkenstock re-entered the shoe business, promoting the orthopedic sandal and introducing the exercise sandal. In 1964, American Margot Fraser bought a pair on a trip to Germany and liked them so much she asked the company about importing them to the US. They were slow to take off but popularity of the comfortable shoes spread coast to coast from San Francisco to Burlington, Vermont. Birkenstock gained its reputation as the official footwear of peace, love and everything organic and was only available at health food stores. By 1971, Fraser convinced the German parent company to give her sole United States distribution rights and she incorporated the company. She introduced the Birkenstock Arizona, which sold well in America, despite criticism from the fashion press.

Throughout the early 70s. Birkenstock continued to develop innovative machinery and in 1972, Karl Birknstock published “Buch der Fußgesundheit” (“Book of foot care) which sold over 30,000 copies.

In Germany, the Birkenstock company expanded its production facilities to meet new demand. Birko Foam was introduced by the mid-70s and the company continued to improve on their materials. Karl Birkenstock published “Birkenstock-Fussfibel” (“Birkenstock foot primer”) in 1983. Sales of Birkenstock shoes in the US began to wane as they were no longer considered fashionable but were still worn by loyal customers keen on comfort at the expense of looks. In 1989, a new range of sandal styles were made available for adults and Birkenstock sandals for children were introduced, under the name BirkiKids .

In the 80s, as the fashion for more comfortable clothing and a nostalgia for the trappings of the 1970s became apparent, Birkenstock’s aggressive marketing, changed the company’s fortunes and between 1989 and 1992 the company expanded 500 % , selling more shoes than it had in the previous 20 years. Competition from other “comfort shoe” companies such as Teva and Naot was fierce but greater access to the Birkenstock product and a wider range of shoes and fittings, meant sales remained competitive. The ugly duckling took pride of place as the centre of fashion with Vogue, GQ, Sassy, and Details magazines all featuring sandal and clog styles, and worn by Hollywood’s elite. Birkenstock’s sales for fiscal 1997 were an estimated $82 million.

Birkenstock Orthopädie GmbH & Co. KG took over their long-term distribution partner Birkenstock Distribution USA, Inc. (BDUSA). In 2012, the family agreed to give up control to outside managers, although it retained ownership. In 2013, The 38 individual companies were combined into a group with three business areas (production, sales, services). Rudy Haslbeck was hired as director of product & design and charged with gently modernizing the brand. Birkenstocks branched out into hiking boots, formal shoes and other fashion accessories and

Footnote

The transformation from a niche German health item into a global fashion brand might not have happened without the involvement of Margot Fraser (1929- 2017). Born in Berlin, the successful dressmaker felt constrained in Germany, and married an American and moved to Northern California in the early sixties She recognised the potential for comfy shores and was determined to increase the range of footwear sometimes meeting with resistance from Birkenstock whch she fortunately overcame.

References
Ahmad UH. et al (2019) Electromyography sensing on tibialis and peroneus muscle against flat feet orthotic insole Proceedings of Mechanical Engineering Research Day 2019 pp16 -19
Gilman SL (1990) The Jewish body: a “footnote” Bull Hist Med 64:4 588-602
Gilman SL (1991) The Jew’s body . Taylor & Frances/Routledge